This thesis is written as the conclusion of the program in Urban and Regional Planning at the Universiteit van Amsterdam. It deals with a new kind of transportation system: the electronically guided people mover (EPM). This system operates with small vans which drive automatically, and do so without physical guidance like rails.

The research focuses on the spatial implications of the system, especially the relationship with urban nodes. The goal of the research is a step-by-step plan for initial investigation that shows the possibilities of the EPM-system in a certain geographical context.

Description of the system

The system can be used as a collective or an individual service. The collective system is a form of GRT, Group Rapid Transit, the individual system is a form of PRT, Personal Rapid Transit. The vans have a top speed of around 40 kph (25 mph) and an average speed of 20 kph (13 mph). If a system is operated as PRT, the average speed is 35 kph (22 mph). The low speed makes it suitable for operating at the scale of a neighbourhood or a quarter. The stops are at a distance of 200 to 400 meters (220 to 440 yards).

The capacity of the system with an 8-person van can be as high as a tram or light rail, or with the 20-person van even the same as a subway system. This is possible because of the short headway needed, due to the low speed. With a headway of around 2 seconds, the capacity of the 8-person version is about 21,600 people per hour, and the 20-person version has a capacity of around 33,600 people per hour. A PRT system can have a capacity of 2,520 people per hour, comparable with a lane on a highway. The capacities can double if the headway can be brought down to just one second, which is technologically feasible in the short term.

Because the vans drive automatically, they need their own reserved path, about 2.5 meters (8.2 feet) wide. The vans steer quite accurately, so it is not necessary to pave the centre of the lane.

The EPM has a low energy consumption of 0.2 MJ (megajoule) per passenger kilometre (0.34 MJ per passenger mile), based on a 50% occupation of the 20-person version. This is lower then any other conventional transport system. This, combined with the silent electric vehicles with no exhaust pipe, makes the EPM a very environmentally friendly system.

The EPM is still only used in the Netherlands. The so-called ParkShuttle is used in a parking lot at Amsterdam Airport Schiphol, to help passengers to get from their car to the shuttle bus (see pictures). In Rotterdam the system has been used as a connection between a metro stop and a business park 1.3 kilometre (0.8 mile) away. The enthusiasm by the users of the system has been moderate because of technical start-up problems, but the system is going to be extended with a longer path, more stops and larger vans. For that, the system has been temporarily replaced by a van with driver (see pictures).
A third system is now running at the Floriade, an agricultural exhibition close to Amsterdam. It is used to transport people to the top of a look-out hill 40 meters (131 feet) high (see pictures).

Two other systems are far along progressing in their development. ULTra, a system in Wales, will be used as an individual EPM in the inner city of Cardiff. A one kilometre (0.6 mile) test track has opened in January of this year. In Lausanne, Switzerland, a test track for a system called Serpentine is built. This EPM has an advantage above the others: it doesn’t need a battery. The vehicle gets its current via induction through the pavement. It doesn’t have physical contact with the power supply. Furthermore, it is also possible to steer the vehicles manually, off of the route. For that reason, it has a small battery on board that will allow it to run 10 kilometres (6 miles). The project has some problems due to a legal quarrel with the federal government: the laws for traffic and transportation do not have a place for a system like Serpentine in their current form.

EPMs and spatial design

Due to their speed, electronically guided people movers are mainly suitable at the scale of the neighbourhood or the quarter. There are three types of movement on this scale:

• transport to or from a stop as part of a longer trip,
• a transfer,
• a complete trip over a short distance.

Spatial situation where this kind of movements appear, are:

1. Nodes: the EPM serves here as transport to or from the node, or as a transfer.
2. Locations where people need transport over a short distance, usually in places where they don’t have their own transport. Examples are a campus, a leisure park or a shopping mall.

A node can be described in three dimensions:

• value of node,
• value of place,
• value of encounter.

Value of node is a measure of in how many ways the node can be reached. The more places that can be reached by different modes of transport, the higher the value of node. The value of place gives an indication about the surroundings of the station: the number of people that work and live there, and the facilities that are present. The third dimension, value of encounter, is partly set by the first two dimensions, although other factors, like the design of the spatial environment, play a role as well.
The area that is influenced by a node is set by the scale of the node. The higher the scale, the longer people are willing to travel to or from that node. So the area of influence is set by travel time, not distance. That means that if the speed of travel is increased, then the influence area of the node will be larger. The introduction of a high frequency EPM can do this job. More companies and houses will be in reach of the node because of this. All three values of a node can be enhanced.
An electronically guided people mover needs its own path. The space used is compensated by enlarging the area where offices or houses can be built.

In the figure on the right, the effects of the EPM on nodes are show.
A node with a high value of node and a high value of place can be stressed, meaning that there is not enough space to accommodate all development. An EPM can enlarge the influence area around a node to offer more room. The point where stress begins is moved upwards (arrow 1).
If a node has an unequally high value of node or place, development to balance the values can be expected. An EPM can help this process. It can enlarge the area, so more functions will be in reach. The value of place will rise (arrow 2). It can also be used to speed up transfer or as a way to go to or from the node. The value of node will rise (arrow 3).

Step-by-step plan for initial investigation 

If an EPM is an option in a certain area, the step-by-step plan presented here can be used as a tool for initial investigation of the possibilities.

Step 1: Define the type and size of transport demand
The EPM is used for short distance travel. It has a wide range of capacities, depending on how many vehicles are used. If there is no transport to or from, or at a node, steps 2 and 5 can be skipped.

Step 2: Identify nodes
To estimate what the effect of the people mover will be, and whether a node can be expanded with an electronically guided people mover, the values and scale of the nodes must be defined.

Step 3: Define pattern of movement
The pattern of movement is important, not only for the design of the network and location of the stops, but also for choosing between a GRT and a PRT system. With a lot of criss-cross movements, an individual EPM can be a better solution. If there are a lot of movements along one line, a collective EPM will be more useful. A combination is an option.

Step 4: Survey possible routes
A path needs 2.5 meter (8.2 feet) per lane. If necessary, the path can be (partly) made out of one lane with passing point. The fewer crossings, the better. Crossings have to be protected, which makes them expensive. To avoid waiting time, elevated crossings can also be constructed.

Step 5: Define travelling time between node and destination
The scale of the node sets the maximum accepted time for travel to or from the node. With an average speed of 20 kph (13 mph) the maximum distance to the destination can be calculated. Or, if the distance is longer then that, one can try to speed up the system by fewer stops or higher top speed.
For calculating the distance, one must use the length of the path, not the straight point-to-point distance.

Step 6: Survey functions along the route
 The spatial configuration and functions in the area influence the success of the system.

• The level of security shielding of the path depends on how many people live nearby it.
• The functions in the area influence public support for the system. A route in a residential area can arouse more protest than in a business district.
• It may be possible to extend the path slightly to reach more potential customers, which will lead to a higher use.

Finally, an overview of the functions nearby is given, including any possible problems.

Step 7: Summarise alternatives
A conventional system may be able to do the job. The pros and cons are weighted, and one takes a look at characteristics such as speed and capacity.

Step 8: Assess possible routes
With the above inventory, one or more promising routes are chosen for further research. Or, the result is negative on implementing the EPM at all.